Can I change a Cordova/iOS app's "displayed name" without changing the entire file structure/Xcode project?

You can change CFBundleDisplayName in your *-Info.plist file by adding the following to Cordova's config.xml

<config-file parent="CFBundleDisplayName" platform="ios" target="*-Info.plist">
    <string>My App</string>
</config-file>

You can add a short name to the name element in the config.xml of your app:

<widget ...>
   <name short="HiCdv">HelloCordova</name>
</widget>

Reference

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Or if the above doesn't work, you can try this instead:

<platform name="ios">    
    <edit-config file="*-Info.plist" mode="merge" target="CFBundleDisplayName">
            <string>Your Display Name</string>
    </edit-config>
    ...
</platform>

Place that code in the config.xml file for the name to persist between builds meaning you don't need to manually edit every time.

Edit Bundle display name node in MyFirstApp-Info.plist.