How to create a code object in python?
Example usage of the CodeType constructor may be found in the standard library, specifically Lib/modulefinder.py. If you look there, you'll see it being used to redefine the read-only co_filename attribute on all the code objects in a file.
I recently ran into a similar use case where I had a function factory, but the generated functions always had the "generic" name in the traceback, so I had to regenerate the code objects to contain the desired name.
>>> def x(): raise NotImplementedError
...
>>> x.__name__
'x'
>>> x.__name__ = 'y'
>>> x.__name__
'y'
>>> x()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "<stdin>", line 1, in x
NotImplementedError
>>> x.__code__.co_name
'x'
>>> x.__code__.__name__ = 'y'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: readonly attribute
>>> 'Gah!'
'Gah!'
But, wait, the function's __code__ member is not read-only, so we can do what the modulefinder does:
>>> from types import CodeType
>>> co = x.__code__
>>> x.__code__ = CodeType(co.co_argcount, co.co_kwonlyargcount,
co.co_nlocals, co.co_stacksize, co.co_flags,
co.co_code, co.co_consts, co.co_names,
co.co_varnames, co.co_filename,
'MyNewCodeName',
co.co_firstlineno, co.co_lnotab, co.co_freevars,
co.co_cellvars)
>>> x.__code__.co_name
'MyNewCodeName'
>>> x()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "<stdin>", line 1, in MyNewCodeName
NotImplementedError
The thing to note in this example is that the traceback uses the co_name attribute, not the func.__name__ attribute when producing values in the stack trace.
One more note: The above is Python 3, to make it Python 2 compatible, just leave out the second argument to the constructor (co_kwonlyargcount).
UPDATE: Victor Stinner added a new method, 'replace', to the CodeType class in Python 3.8, which simplifies the situation quite considerably. This was done to eliminate future compatibility issues, as 3.8 also added a new 'co_posonlyargcount' argument into the call list after 'co_argcount', so at least your 3.8 and later code will be somewhat future proofed if the argument list changes again.
>>> x.__code__ = x.__code__.replace(co_name='MyNewCodeName')
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Disclaimer :
Documentation in this answer is not official and may be incorrect.
This answer is valid only for python version 3.x
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In order to create a code object you have to pass to the function CodeType() the following arguments:
CodeType(
argcount, # integer
kwonlyargcount, # integer
nlocals, # integer
stacksize, # integer
flags, # integer
codestring, # bytes
consts, # tuple
names, # tuple
varnames, # tuple
filename, # string
name, # string
firstlineno, # integer
lnotab, # bytes
freevars, # tuple
cellvars # tuple
)
Now i will try to explain what is the meaning of each argument.
argcount
Number of arguments to be passed to the function (*args and **kwargs are not included).
kwonlyargcount
Number of keyword-only arguments.
nlocals
Number of local variables ,
namely all variables and parameters(*args and **kwargs included) except global names.
stacksize
The amount of stack (virtual machine stack) required by the code ,
if you want to understand how it works , see official Documentation.
flags
A bitmap that says something about the code object:
1 –> code was optimized
2 –> newlocals: there is a new local namespace(for example a function)
4 –> the code accepts an arbitrary number of positional arguments (*args is used)
8 –> the code accepts an arbitrary number of keyworded arguments (*kwargs is used)
32 –> the code is a generator
othes flags are used in older python versions or are activated to say what is imported from __ future __
codestring
A sequence of bytes representing bytecode instructions
if you want a better understanding , see Documentation (same as above)
consts
A tuple containing literals used by the bytecode (for example pre-computed numbers, tuples,and strings)
names
A tuple containing names used by the bytecode
this names are global variables, functions and classes or also attributes loaded from objects
varnames
A tuple containing local names used by the bytecode (arguments first, then local variables)
filename
It is the filename from which the code was compiled.
It can be whatever you want,you are free to lie about this. ;)
name
It gives the name of the function.
Also this can be whatever you want,but be careful:
this is the name shown in the traceback,if the name is unclear,the traceback could be unclear,
just think about how lambdas can be annoying.
firstlineno
The first line of the function (for debug purpose if you compiled source code)
lnotab
A mapping of bytes that correlates bytecode offsets to line numbers.
(i think also this is for debug purpose,there is few documentation about this)
freevars
A tuple containing the names of free variables.
Free variables are variables declared in the namespace where the code object was defined,
they are used when nested functions are declared;
this doesn't happen at module level because in that case free variables are also global variables.
cellvars
A tuple containing names of local variables referenced by nested functions.
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Examples :
following examples should clarify the meaning of what has been said above.
Note: in finished code objects attributes mentioned above have the co_ prefix,
and a function stores its executable body in the __code__ attribute
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1st Example
def F(a,b):
global c
k=a*c
w=10
p=(1,"two",3)
print(F.__code__.co_argcount)
print(F.__code__.co_nlocals , F.__code__.co_varnames)
print(F.__code__.co_stacksize)
print(F.__code__.co_flags)
print(F.__code__.co_names)
print(F.__code__.co_consts)
Output:
2
5 ('a', 'b', 'k', 'w', 'p')
3
67
('c' ,)
(None, 10, 1, 'two'. 3, (1, 'two', 3))
there are two arguments passed to this function ("a","b")
this function has two parameters("a","b") and three local variables("k","w","p")
disassembling the function bytecode we obtain this:
3 0 LOAD_FAST 0 (a) #stack: ["a"] 3 LOAD_GLOBAL 0 (c) #stack: ["a","c"] 6 BINARY_MULTIPLY #stack: [result of a*c] 7 STORE_FAST 2 (k) #stack: [] 4 10 LOAD_CONST 1 (10) #stack: [10] 13 STORE_FAST 3 (w) #stack: [] 5 16 LOAD_CONST 5 ((1, 'two', 3)) #stack: [(1,"two",3)] 19 STORE_FAST 4 (p) #stack: [] 22 LOAD_CONST 0 (None) #stack: [None] 25 RETURN_VALUE #stack: []as you can notice chile executing the function we never have more than three elements in the stack (tuple counts as its lenght in this case)
flag's value is dec 67 = bin 1000011 = bin 1000000 +10 +1 = dec 64 +2 +1 ,so we understand that
- the code is optimized(as most of the automatically generated code is)
- while executing the function bytecode local namespace changes
- 64? Actually i don't know what is its meaning
the only global name that is used in the function is "c" , it is stored in co_names
every explicit literal we use is stored in co_consts:
- None is the return value of the function
- we explicitly assign the number 10 to w
- we explicitly assign (1, 'two', 3) to p
- if the tuple is a constant each element of that tuple is a constant,so 1,"two",3 are constants
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2nd example
ModuleVar="hi"
def F():
FunctionVar=106
UnusedVar=ModuleVar
def G():
return (FunctionVar,ModuleVar)
print(G.__code__.co_freevars)
print(G.__code__.co_names)
F()
print(F.__code__.co_cellvars)
print(F.__code__.co_freevars)
print(F.__code__.co_names)
Output:
('FunctionVar',)
('ModuleVar',)
('FunctionVar',)
()
('print', '__code__', 'co_freevars', 'co_names', 'ModuleVar')
the meaning of the output is this:
first and second line are printed when F is executed,so they show co_freevars and co_names of G code:
"FunctionVar" is in the namespace of F function,where G was created,
"ModuleVar" instead is a module variable,so it is considered as global.
following three lines are about co_cellvars,co_freevars and co_names attributes of F code:
"FunctionVar" is referenced in the G nested function ,so it is marked as a cellvar,
"ModuleVar" is in the namespace where F was created,but it is a module variable,
so it is not marked as freevar,but it is found in global names.
also the builtin function print is marked in names , and all the names of attributes used in F.
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3rd example
This is a working code object initialization,
this is unuseful but you can do everything you want with this function.
MyCode= CodeType(
0,
0,
0,
3,
64,
bytes([101, 0, 0, #Load print function
101, 1, 0, #Load name 'a'
101, 2, 0, #Load name 'b'
23, #Take first two stack elements and store their sum
131, 1, 0, #Call first element in the stack with one positional argument
1, #Pop top of stack
101, 0, 0, #Load print function
101, 1, 0, #Load name 'a'
101, 2, 0, #Load name 'b'
20, #Take first two stack elements and store their product
131, 1, 0, #Call first element in the stack with one positional argument
1, #Pop top of stack
100, 0, 0, #Load constant None
83]), #Return top of stack
(None,),
('print', 'a', 'b'),
(),
'PersonalCodeObject',
'MyCode',
1,
bytes([14,1]),
(),
() )
a=2
b=3
exec(MyCode) # code prints the sum and the product of "a" and "b"
Output:
5
6