How to UPDATE all columns of a record without having to list every column

This is not posible, but..

you can doit:

begin tran
delete from table where CONDITION
insert into table select * from EqualDesingTabletoTable where CONDITION
commit tran

be carefoul with identity fields.

It's not possible.

What you're trying to do is not part of SQL specification and is not supported by any database vendor. See the specifications of SQL UPDATE statements for MySQL, Postgresql, MSSQL, Oracle, Firebird, Teradata. Every one of those supports only below syntax:

UPDATE table_reference
   SET column1 = {expression} [, column2 = {expression}] ...
[WHERE ...]

Here's a hardcore way to do it with SQL SERVER. Carefully consider security and integrity before you try it, though.

This uses schema to get the names of all the columns and then puts together a big update statement to update all columns except ID column, which it uses to join the tables.

This only works for a single column key, not composites.

usage: EXEC UPDATE_ALL 'source_table','destination_table','id_column'

CREATE PROCEDURE UPDATE_ALL

@SOURCE VARCHAR(100),
@DEST VARCHAR(100),
@ID VARCHAR(100)

AS

    DECLARE @SQL VARCHAR(MAX) =  

    'UPDATE D SET ' +

    -- Google 'for xml path stuff' This gets the rows from query results and 
    -- turns into comma separated list.
    STUFF((SELECT ', D.'+ COLUMN_NAME + ' = S.' + COLUMN_NAME
    FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.COLUMNS
    WHERE TABLE_NAME = @DEST
    AND COLUMN_NAME <> @ID 
    FOR XML PATH('')),1,1,'')

    + ' FROM ' + @SOURCE + ' S JOIN ' + @DEST + ' D ON S.' +  @ID + ' = D.' + @ID

    --SELECT @SQL
    EXEC (@SQL)