EXT4-fs error after Ubuntu 17.04 upgrade

As pointed out in a comment by Elder Geek, this is due to a known bug.

From the bug report:

APST support just landed in the latest Zesty kernel (4.10.0-14.16) as part of https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/linux/+bug/1664602. That patch has a quirk for certain 256GB Samsung drives found in Dell laptops that do not behave well when APST is enabled. I am experiencing the same symptoms with the same model laptop except with a 512GB Samsung. Prior to manually disabling APST the drive would die and system would go down in flames with I/O errors within 20 to 40 minutes of boot.

Until a proper fix is implemented, a workaround is suggested, which involves adding a kernel parameter:

Please try nvme_core.default_ps_max_latency_us=5500, if the issue persists, please try nvme_core.default_ps_max_latency_us=200.

To add a kernel boot parameter, edit the configuration file for GRUB:

sudo nano /etc/default/grub

Find the line beginning GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT and add the boot parameter to the others already between the quotes. For example, in this case you will probably end up with

GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT="quiet splash nvme_core.default_ps_max_latency_us=5500"

Save the file and exit, then to make the change effective, run

sudo update-grub