Is there a PHP equivalent of JavaScript's Array.prototype.some() function

No, there is no short circuiting equivalent in the PHP standard library. There are any number of non-short circuiting solutions, among which array_reduce would probably fit best:

var_dump(array_reduce([2, 5, 8, 1, 4], function ($isBigger, $num) {
    return $isBigger || $num > 10;
}));

It may be worth implementing your own some/any/all functions, or use a library which provides a collection of functional programming primitives like this, e.g. https://github.com/lstrojny/functional-php.

It is not included, but they are easily created. This uses the SRFI-1 names any and every but can be renamed some and all:

function array_any(array $array, callable $fn) {
    foreach ($array as $value) {
        if($fn($value)) {
            return true;
        }
    }
    return false;
}

function array_every(array $array, callable $fn) {
    foreach ($array as $value) {
        if(!$fn($value)) {
            return false;
        }
    }
    return true;
}