Is there a categorical proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem?

This is not exactly what you asked for but I think it's reasonably close to what you want...

The idea of recasting Gödel's results in the context of category theory has led André Joyal to develop arithmetic universes, a minimalistic category tailored for that purpose. Unfortunately, Joyal never published this as explained by Paul Taylor in this recent answer.

It means that higher-order intuitionistic logic with natural numbers and Heyting arithmetic cannot prove its own consistency.

I think it is hard to see from your question what sort of an answer you are expecting. Are you looking for topos-theoretic formulations of Gödel's theorems? Or the impact that the theorems have on topos theory? I can amend the answer once I understand what you are looking for.

There is a reformulation in categorical terms of Godel's incompleteness theorem in the book "Conceptual mathematics" by Schanuel and Lawvere. There are also notes of Gromov Ergostructures, Ergodic and the Universal Learning Problem: Chapters 1, 2 where on page 16-17 he discusses "an adaptation of [Schanuel-Lawvere] argument". For both approaches the key is Cantor's diagonal argument; I do not think either mentions topos theory.