Is there any reasoning behind component names?
The prefix often has a specific meaning, but the numbering following the prefix often doesn't.
In general:
1N... = diodes
2N... = transistorsA... (2 letters + 3 digits) = germanium transistor, e.g. AF117
B... (idem) = silicon transistor, e.g BC847
For diodes like 1N400x the last digit is kind of counter to indicate the diodes belong to the same series:
1N4001: 50V
1N4002: 100V
1N4003: 200V
1N4004: 400V
1N4005: 600V
1N4006: 800V
1N4007: 1000V
The 1N4148 is a typical switching diode. For it's SMT counterpart manufacturers use the same number (4148), but with a different prefix: Fairchild calls it an LL4148, Rectron an MM4148.
On the other hand, the SMT version of the BC547 transistor is the BC847, so there they keep the prefix, but change the number. You try and find the logic in it.
IC manufacturers often release new devices with their own prefix, like "LT" for Linear Technology, or "LM" for National Semiconductor, so sometimes it refers directly to the name, but often it doesn't. When other manufacturers make compatible parts, however, they often stick to the same part number, so that prefix doesn't always tell you who the manufacturer is. A MAX809, for instance, is made by (at least) Maxim, On Semiconductor and NXP. "TIP" originally meant "Texas Instruments Power" but you'll also find a TIP110 transistor with Fairchild.
Like Matt says sometimes the number following the prefix refers to the device's function. He mentions the MAX232 as an EIA232 driver, and guess what the MAX485 is. FTDI's FT232R is also an EIA232 bridge. But those are really exceptions.
Sometimes the last digit refers to the number of opamps, for instance, in a device.
LF411 = single opamp
LF412 = dual LF411
I once asked a question about other than manufacturer's prefixes in IC type numbers, but there seems to be little systematical in it.
I used to work for a semiconductor chip company. While there we came out with a new chip and I was involved in the talks for what the part number should be. We requested that the part number was "CS100". Our reasoning was that we wanted our chip to show up first in an alphabetical list of chips the company sells. The request for this number was flatly denied. The reasoning was, "The part number is not long enough".
The point is: Manufacturer part numbers only make sense to the people who came up with them-- and then only barely. Any resemblance to sanity is purely coincidental.
While I've only worked for one semi manufacturer, my experience with other companies has shown that this is true for all companies. The bigger and older the company, the worse it is.
For ICs, it's whatever the manufacturer feels like doing. Older stuff, like the 74xxx series logic have names that meant something internal to the manufacturer, which in this case was TI. Nowadays with the proliferation of ICs and trademarks, you see more and more the manufacturer name or a registered trademark of the manufacturer added into the full part number. For example, all Microchip microcontrollers have their PIC tradename in their full product number, Maxim parts numbers tend to start with MAX, etc.
Other part numbers like the common 2Nxxxx for transistors and 1Nxxxx for diodes come from standardization attempts. The 2N and 1N types are Jedec(?) registered, which is why various different manufacturers make a 2N3906 transistor. Sometimes manufacturers will add a prefix or suffix to this, and sometimes they will use the bare Jedec number for their conforming part.