Prove: $\binom{n}{k}^{-1}=(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}x^{k}(1-x)^{n-k}dx$ for $0 \leq k \leq n$

Let's do it somewhat like the way the Rev. Thomas Bayes did it in the 18th century (but I'll phrase it in modern probabilistic terminology).

Suppose $n+1$ independent random variables $X_0,X_1,\ldots,X_n$ are uniformly distributed on the interval $[0,1]$.

Suppose for $i=1,\ldots,n$ (starting with $1$, not with $0$) we have: $$Y_i = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{if }X_i<X_0 \\ 0 & \text{if }X_i>X_0\end{cases}$$

Then $Y_1,\ldots,Y_n$ are conditionally independent given $X_0$, and $\Pr(Y_i=1\mid X_0)= X_0$.

So $\Pr(Y_1+\cdots+Y_n=k\mid X_0) = \dbinom{n}{k} X_0^k (1-X_0)^{n-k},$ and hence $$\Pr(Y_1+\cdots+Y_n=k) = \operatorname{E}\left(\dbinom{n}{k} X_0^k (1-X_0)^{n-k}\right).$$

This is equal to $$ \int_0^1 \binom nk x^k(1-x)^{n-k}\;dx. $$

But the event is the same as saying that the index $i$ for which $X_i$ is in the $(k+1)$th position when $X_0,X_1,\ldots,X_n$ are sorted into increasing order is $0$.

Since all $n+1$ indices are equally likely to be in that position, this probability is $1/(n+1)$.

Thus $$\int_0^1\binom nk x^k(1-x)^{n-k}\;dx = \frac{1}{n+1}.$$

The method in Michael Hardy's answer is my favorite, but here's my second favorite (using the binomial theorem as you suggested): \begin{align} & \sum_{k=0}^n t^k \int_0^1 {n \choose k} x^k (1 - x)^{n-k} \, dx = \int_0^1 (1 + (t-1)x)^n \, dx \\[10pt] = {} & \frac{t^{n+1} - 1}{(t-1)(n+1)} = \frac{1 + t + \cdots + t^n}{n+1}. \end{align}

Generating functions are surprisingly useful for evaluating certain types of discrete families of integrals. For example, to evaluate $$I_k(x) = \int_0^x u^k e^u \, du$$

simply observe that $$\sum I_k(x) \frac{t^k}{k!} = \int_0^x e^{ut} e^u \, du = \frac{e^{(t+1)x} - 1}{t+1}.$$

See also this MO question.

Use induction on $k$. For $k=0$, we have $$(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}(1-x)^{n}dx=-(1-x)^{n+1}\Big|_0^1=1=\binom{n}{0}^{-1}.$$ Now assume that it's true for all $k\leq n-1$ (if $k=n$ we are done), i.e. $$\binom{n}{k}^{-1}=(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}x^{k}(1-x)^{n-k}dx.$$ Consider $(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}x^{k+1}(1-x)^{n-k-1}dx$. By integration by parts, $$(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}x^{k+1}(1-x)^{n-k-1}dx=-\frac{(n+1)}{n-k}\int_{0}^{1}x^{k+1}d((1-x)^{n-k})$$ $$=-\frac{(n+1)}{n-k}\Big[x^{k+1}(1-x)^{n-k}\Big|_0^1-\int_{0}^{1}(1-x)^{n-k}d(x^{k+1})\Big]=\frac{(n+1)(k+1)}{n-k}\int_{0}^{1}x^{k}(1-x)^{n-k}dx.$$ Hence, by the induction assumption (the above equality), $$(n+1)\int_{0}^{1}x^{k+1}(1-x)^{n-k-1}dx=\frac{k+1}{n-k}\binom{n}{k}^{-1}=\binom{n}{k+1}^{-1},$$ as required.