Wordpress - Replacing the title in admin list table

1. Change post title in post list column

I misunderstood what you wanted - obviously. You can do that like this:

add_action(
    'admin_head-edit.php',
    'wpse152971_edit_post_change_title_in_list'
);
function wpse152971_edit_post_change_title_in_list() {
    add_filter(
        'the_title',
        'wpse152971_construct_new_title',
        100,
        2
    );
}

function wpse152971_construct_new_title( $title, $id ) {
    //print_r( $title );
    //print_r( $id );
    return 'new';
}

Making use of the admin_head-$hook_suffix hook.

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(Disclaimer: Keeping this, because it is related and good information)

2. Replace the table column title

Besides you are not using and overwriting the column table title. Below some exemplary code on how to do it:

1. Based on the manage_{$this->screen->id}_columns hook

   add_filter(
       'manage_edit-post_columns',
       'wpse152971_replace_column_title_method_a'
   );
   function wpse152971_replace_column_title_method_a( $columns ) {  
       //print_r($columns);  
       $columns[ 'title' ] = 'new title';  
       return $columns;  
   }  
   

2. Based on the manage_{$post_type}_posts_columns hook

   add_filter(
       'manage_post_posts_columns',
       'wpse152971_replace_column_title_method_b'
   );
   function wpse152971_replace_column_title_method_b( $posts_columns ) {
       //print_r($posts_columns);
       $posts_columns[ 'title' ] = 'new title';
       return $posts_columns;
   }
   

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Last but not least the following code is handy to get the information you need:

add_action( 'admin_head', 'wpse152619_dbg_dev' );
function wpse152619_dbg_dev() {
    global $pagenow;
    print_r( $pagenow );
    echo '<br>';
    print_r( $_GET[ 'taxonomy' ] );
    echo '<br>';
    $current_screen = get_current_screen();
    print_r( $current_screen->id );
}