Sum of product of binomial coefficients: $\sum_{k=0}^{n}(-1)^k\binom{n}{k}\binom{n + k}{k} = (-1)^n$

If you write the equation to prove as $\sum_k(-1)^{n-k}\binom nk\binom{n+k}n=1$, you can interpret the left hand side as the result of applying the $n$-th finite difference operation $\Delta^n$ to the sequence $k\mapsto\binom kn$, and taking the term of the resulting sequence at $k=n$. Then $\Delta(k\mapsto\binom km)=k\mapsto\binom k{m-1}$ implies that the left hand side becomes $\Delta^n\left(k\mapsto\binom kn\right)(n)=\binom n{n-n}=\binom n0=1$ as desired.

Another approach is to recognise negation of the upper index in the second binomial coefficient: $$ (-1)^k\binom{n+k}k=\binom{k-(n+k)-1}k=\binom{-n-1}k, $$ after which the identity becomes in instance of the Vandermonde identity $$ \sum_{k=0}^n(-1)^k\binom nk\binom{n + k}k= \sum_k\binom n{n-k}\binom{-n-1}k=\binom{-1}n=(-1)^n. $$

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Added after request in comment. Neither of these arguments requires much beyond basic knowledge about binomial coefficients. The difference operator $\Delta$ is defined by $\Delta(f)(k)=f(k+1)-f(k)$, so with $f:k\mapsto\binom km$ one gets $$ \Delta(f)(k)=\binom{k+1}m-\binom km=\binom k{m-1} $$

just from Pascal's recurrence. And the formula $$ \Delta^n(f)(n)=\sum_i(-1)^{n-i}\binom nif(n+i) $$ either follows easily by induction from the definition of $\Delta$, or if you prefer by using the operators identity $I$ and shift $S$ on functions, defined by $I(f)=f$ and $S(f)(i)=f(i+1)$, writing $\Delta=S-I$, and using the binomial formula for $(S-I)^n$ (possible since $S$ and $I$ commute).

In the second variant, you probably already know the formula $\binom{-n}k= (-1)^k\binom{n+k-1}k$ for binomial coefficients with negative upper index, or else the equality between the outer expressions in $$ (1+X)^{-n} = \sum_{k\in\mathbf N} \binom{-n}kX^k = \sum_{k\in\mathbf N}(-1)^k\binom{n+k-1}kX^k $$ (if not, see this answer deriving the first formula). Then $\sum_k(-1)^k\binom{n+k}kX^k=(1+X)^{-n-1}$, and the instance of the Vandermonde identity is proved by comparing coefficients in $$ \sum_n\left(\sum_{k=0}^n(-1)^k\tbinom{n + k}k\tbinom nk\right)X^n =(1+X)^{-n-1}(1+X)^n=(1+X)^{-1}=\sum_n(-1)^nX^n $$ which might be the proof using only manipulation of $(1+X)^{n-1}$ you asked for.